"Learning Outcomes in Developing Countries: Four Hard Lessons from PISA-D"

This paper uses student level PISA-D results for seven countries to examine inequality in learning outcomes at the global, country, and student level for public school students and examines learning inequality using five dimensions of potential social disadvantage: sex, rurality, home language, immigrant status, and socio-economic status (SES). It shows that to fill the massive gap between developing countries learning outcomes and other higher performing countries we must address global equity targeting low learning at a systemic level.